Remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest

ABSTRACT

A remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining carbon dioxide volume of a forest can correlate aerial data, such as LiDAR, CIR, and/or Hyperspectral data with actual sampled and measured ground data to facilitate obtainment, e.g., prediction, of an accurate forest inventory, and corresponding carbon dioxide volume thereof.

BACKGROUND

The remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest relates generally to analyzing remote sensing data, such as digital images and LiDAR data, to extract, classify, and analyze aggregate and individual features, such as trees in order to produce an accurate forest inventory. More particularly, the remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest relates to a method for producing an accurate determination of the amount of carbon dioxide volume per acre of the forest.

The importance of calculating carbon sequestration in forestland is important for a variety of reasons. Deforestation is estimated to be responsible for 20-25% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2001), including carbon dioxide (CO₂). The ability to calculate baseline forested carbon stocks as well as monitor change over time with statistical precision and accuracy is critical to understanding advancements or declines in sequestration efforts in the United States and around the world.

The probabilistic sampling forest inventory method of collecting quantifiable inputs for the accurate calculation of carbon stocks can provide a significant advancement in carbon sequestration measurement and monitoring of forested carbon stocks. This advancement is important in potentially reducing the cost of data input collection as well as the ability to systematically process the inputs for calculations of potentially billions of acres with statistical precision and accuracy unmatched heretofore.

SUMMARY

An embodiment of a remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest as described herein can generally comprise processing remote sensing data which is indicative of tree attribute information; defining a sampling frame within the remote sensing data; determining a field plot corresponding to said sampling frame and collecting field plot data therefrom, said field plot data comprising actual tree attribute information; creating a regression formula using the correlated tree match database and the remote sensing data from the sampling frame; generating a correlated model using the regression formula; applying the correlated model to all remote sensing data to create an accurate forest inventory; and determining the probabilistic carbon dioxide volume per acre of the forest.

The remote sensing data can comprise LiDAR data, digital images, and/or property boundary information, and the tree attribute information can be tree height, diameter, and/or species. The field plot data can be actual, measured tree attribute information. The field plot data can be obtained via precise physical measurements of trees on the ground, and the field plot can be matched to the sampling frame using, for example, a highly accurate Geographical Information System (“GIS”) to ensure that the sampling frame matches up with the field plot where the field data is measured.

Generation of the correlated model can further comprise verifying the accuracy and/or the quality of the correlated model. Verifying the accuracy of the correlated model can comprise comparing the field plot against the model prediction. Verifying the quality of the correlated model can comprise using quality control means including checking and ensuring that there are no calculation errors.

Basically, the remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method described herein can generally comprise the use of probabilistic sampling based methods to accurately capture forest inventory. The remote sensing data can be aerial data, such as the aforementioned LiDAR data and digital images, e.g., color infrared spectral (“CCIR”) photography, and/or multispectral photography. Also, hyperspectral data can be used instead of multispectral or CIR data. Via a sampling frame and corresponding field plot, the remote sensing data can be correlated with actual sampled and measured field data to obtain (predict) an accurate forest inventory. The resulting tree inventory can represent an empirical description of tree attributes, such as height, diameter breast height (“DBH”) and species for every tree within the selected inventory area. This data can be utilized to create an accurate forest inventory and then determine the carbon dioxide volume per acre of the forest.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a high level diagram of an embodiment of a remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method.

FIG. 2 is a high level diagram of an embodiment of a field data correlation method.

FIG. 3 is a high level diagram of an embodiment of a correlated model generation method.

FIG. 4 is a high level diagram of another embodiment of a remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method.

FIG. 5 is a lower level diagram of an embodiment of an imagery data processing method as illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 6 is a lower level diagram of an embodiment of a tree polygon classification method as illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 7 is a lower level diagram of an embodiment of a field data correlation method as illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 8 is a lower level diagram of an embodiment of a correlated model generation method as illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 9 is a lower level diagram of an embodiment of a probabilistic inventory generation method as illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 10 is a lower level diagram of an embodiment of a probabilistic inventory generation method for the calculation of carbon volume as illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram illustrating the steps of an embodiment of a method of feature identification and analysis.

FIG. 12 is a digitized input image with a 24 meter/pixel resolution illustrating a 12 square mile forested area in Nicholas County, W. Va.

FIG. 13 is a flow chart of the step of high level segmentation of tree stands from a digital input image.

FIG. 14 illustrates an example of a digital image output using a computer video monitor, overlaid with the polygon image produced by the step of high level tree stand segmentation.

FIG. 15 illustrates the same input image as FIG. 4, after unsupervised stand segmentation adjustment.

FIG. 16 illustrates manual stand segmentation adjustment by circumscribing a line through tree stand segment polygon borders, such that the portion of the polygon circumscribed is removed from the segmentation image and file.

FIG. 17 illustrates the result of manual segmentation adjustment on FIG. 6.

FIG. 18 is a flow chart of low level tree crown segmentation.

FIG. 19 illustrates user selection of a stand vector file for tree crown delineation, species classification, and data analysis.

FIG. 20 illustrates the selected stand vector file before low level segmentation.

FIG. 21 illustrates low level tree crown segmentation using control parameters.

FIG. 22 is a species classification flow chart.

FIG. 23 illustrates a training procedure used in supervised tree crown species classification.

FIG. 24 illustrates computer assisted classification of unselected trees based on a training procedure and user selected training units.

FIG. 25 is a data analysis flow chart.

FIG. 26 illustrates a video monitor displayed data and image file containing data analysis results.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS

A remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest is described in detail hereinafter. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details of exemplary embodiments are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method. However, it may be evident to one skilled in the art that the presently described method may be practiced without these specific details. The method can be most suitably performed using a computer system, e.g., a processor, storage media, input device, video display, and the like.

The terms “carbon” and “carbon volume” as used herein are used interchangeably with “carbon dioxide” and “carbon dioxide volume” and are used in the context of determining the amount of carbon, or carbon dioxide, which is sequestered in a subject forest.

Probabilistic Design-Conceptual Level

The probabilistic sampling method described herein is based upon remote sensing data that is blended with field plot data and used to create a correlated model, and is represented at the conceptual level in FIGS. 1 through 3. A high level diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method 50 is illustrated in FIG. 1, which can generally comprise utilizing remotely sensed data 52 in combination with field plot data 54 to generate a correlated model 56 which can be utilized both to create a more accurate forest (ground) inventory 58 and to determine the carbon dioxide volume 59 of the forest. The remote sensing data 52 can be indicative of tree attribute information for the forest, and from this data one or more sample frames can be defined for subsequent use in creating the probabilistic sampling based forest inventory 58. The remote sensing data 52 can comprise aerial data, such as LiDAR data, digital images, and/or property boundary information. The digital images can include CMR multispectral and/or hyperspectral photography. Multispectral imagery can contain about 3-10 channels. Generally, hyperspectral imagery contains hundreds of bands for each pixel and has typically much larger pixel sizes than can be required according to the embodiments of the methods described herein. Nevertheless, hyperspectral imagery could potentially be utilized.

Field Data Correlation

The field plot data 54 can be obtained via precise physical measurements of trees on the ground, wherein the field plot 60 is matched to the sampling frame (or vice-versa) using, for example, a highly accurate geographical information system (GIS) to ensure that the sampling frame matches up with the field plot 60 where the field data 54 is being measured. One, or multiple, sampling frames (which can be randomly selected) and corresponding field plots can be utilized. A set of correlated field plots can create a set of geo-referenced points, each attributed with a tree's data. Taken over a range of random samples, these plots 60 can be classified as unbiased by a forest biometrician. “Unbiased” sampling methodology is critical to a forest inventory in the same way that GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) is critical in the analysis of financial performance of corporate entities. Any bias introduced in the sampling methodology makes all measurement results suspect.

FIG. 2 is a diagram of an embodiment of a correlation process to manipulate the field plot data 54, which process can generally comprise determining a sample field plot 60; collecting field plot data 54 therefrom, and then utilizing the data. The field plot 60 can correspond to a sampling frame defined from the remote sensing data 52. Alternatively, the field plot 60 can be selected first, and a sampling frame from the remote sensing data 52 can be defined which corresponds to the selected field plot. Whichever the case, the idea is to correlate remote sensing data 52 to actual field plot data 54 in order to create a correlated model (e.g., regression formulas and associated coefficients, as described hereinafter in more detail). This correlated model can then be applied to all of the remote sensing data 52 to produce a more accurate, probabilistic sampling based forest inventory 58, and also to determine the carbon dioxide volume 59 of the forest.

The field plot data 54 can further comprise actual field attributes 62 and field plot measurement data 66. The field attributes can include tree attributes such as tree species, tree diameter and tree height, which can be used to create a correlated tree match database 64. The field data correlation process can include plot center location correction 68 to ensure the field plot 60 accurately corresponds to the associated sampling frame.

Correlated Model Generation

Referring more particularly to FIG. 3, the remote sensing data 52 and field plot data 54 can be combined to generate a correlation model 56 which can be comprised of formulas, e.g., for tree species, height, and diameter, and can also include verifications of facts and relationships between stand data, strata data, plot data, plot-tree data, and plot-tree-polygon data, as would be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, and as may be discerned from the detailed description which follows hereinafter.

A stand is a group of trees that, because of their similar age, condition, past management history, and/or soil characteristics, are logically managed together. Stratification (creating strata) is the process of aggregating the forest into units of reduced variability. Plots are small areas selected in stands, where field measurements are made. Plot tree-polygon data is the data about tree polygons created for stands that happen to be inside these plots.

The correlated model generation 56 can comprise correlating 74 the remote sensing data 52 and the field plot data 54 (via the correlated tree match database 64) in order to derive formulas 76, e.g., regression formulas, and associated coefficients, for tree species, tree height, and tree diameter. The correlated model 56 can then be applied to all remote sensing data 52 to produce an accurate probabilistic sampling based forest inventory 58. The resulting inventory 58 can represent an empirical description of tree attributes, such as species, height, and diameter breast height (“DBH”) for every tree within the selected inventory area. This also enables an accurate determination of the carbon dioxide volume 59 of the forest.

Generation of the correlated model 56 can further comprise verifying the accuracy 70 and/or the quality 72 of the correlated model 56. Model accuracy 70 can be verified by comparing the DBH, as well as the height, volume, and stem number values (as measured on the field plot 60) against what the model predicts these numbers should be for the exact same areas. Additionally, specially designed “control plots” could be used in a model verification process. Next, statistical estimates based on these two different plot inventory sets can be calculated and analyzed. Model quality 72 can be verified using quality control means, which can comprise procedures to check and ensure that there are no calculation errors in the models being utilized. In general, model quality can be related to model accuracy.

Overview and Examples

LiDAR and multi spectral imagery, for example CIR photography, could be used separately, but in preferred embodiments are used together to identify and characterize individual tree crowns. Operationally, it is feasible to collect data for entire forests, and to construct digital maps with stand boundaries and with polygons representing tree crowns. Techniques to create crown polygons, assign species and impute tree sizes are the subject of many ongoing research efforts in Scandinavia, the United States, and elsewhere.

A starting point for sampling can be a map with crown polygons attributed with species and possibly LiDAR height; which can be used as a sampling frame for a statistically valid forest inventory 58. The sample design might assign the stands to strata, randomly select stands for sampling, and might randomly choose two or more map coordinate locations within the selected stand polygons to serve as plot centers (for sampling frames) to obtain field plot data to correlate to the sampling frames.

Fixed-area field plots 60 can be installed at these selected locations (sampling frames). Departures from conventional inventory procedures are that the plot 60 is centered as close as is technologically feasible to the pre-selected coordinates, and the plot 60 is stem-mapped. A fixed-area image plot is identified in the sample frame and co-located with the ground/field plot. The field trees and crown polygons are matched. Models are then fit, or calibrated, to predict what the individual crown polygons actually represent in terms of tree counts, species, DBH's and tree heights. These models can be approximately unbiased for basal area and tree count by species at the strata level. Field trees that are not matched to crown polygons are modeled separately. The models are applied to the sample frame so as to estimate the entire forest inventory 58; the predicted trees are summed by stand to create stand tables. This data further enables an accurate determination of the carbon dioxide volume 59 of the forest. The modeling strategies, and the methods for handling plot co-location, tree and crown polygon matching, and stand boundary overlap all present interesting challenges, which are addressed by the present method, are described in more detail below.

More particularly, embodiments of the correlation of the remote sensing data 52 and the field plot data 54 can further comprise one or more of the following steps:

-   -   measuring the field plot center using a survey grade GPS device.     -   saving the tree species, height and DBH information for all         trees in the plot.     -   measuring the distance to the plot center and azimuth.     -   adding relative tree locations to the GPS locations, and         displaying these absolute locations overlaid on aerial digital         and LiDAR imagery.     -   field crews correcting the field plot center location to a         location that results in the best match between tree locations         on the digital and/or LiDAR imagery and the locations measured         in the field.     -   using a tree recognition algorithm to detect objects, i.e., tree         polygons, on the digital and/or LiDAR imagery-optimally (but not         necessarily) these objects correspond to individual trees.     -   calculating tree polygons attributes, LiDAR height estimates,         area, color (on CIR imagery), and/or estimated tree species.     -   tree polygon objects located in the plot areas are extracted         from the data and used for the procedures described below,         matching and/or statistical analysis.     -   using automatic field tree matching to create a table in which         measured field tree records are merged with tree polygon objects         based upon geographic proximity.     -   manually fixing the tree matching described above based upon         interpreter estimate that current field tree is either         contributing to some pixels of the tree polygon that was created         or it is not visible from air because of a larger tree that         contributed all or some pixels of the tree polygon.     -   using statistical analysis for the data set of field trees, tree         polygon objects and/or the relations created in the two         preceding steps.     -   the prediction estimates, e.g., the probabilities that tree         polygons correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . trees; the probabilities         for tree species for these trees; and the probabilities for DBH         and height for these predicted trees     -   the prediction can also estimate the number of trees “not seen,”         i.e., which have no correlation with the tree polygons.     -   applying these predictions, obtained using the data for field         plot areas, on polygons over the entire inventory area (an         example of probabilistic sampling based predictions is provided         hereinafter).     -   for predicted tree DBH and height values, using appropriate         models to predict the volumes, and then aggregating these values         to create a stand level inventory.

Referring back to FIG. 3, specifically block 76, according to a probabilistic sampling based method, this part of the process can comprise more than a single estimate for determinations such as, for example, how many trees there might be and what might be the species of the (largest) tree corresponding to the tree polygons. These alternative events can be assigned probabilities, and the final DBH and volume estimates can be based upon summing up the DBH and volume estimates for these events, with their probabilities to take into account.

Model accuracy 70 can be verified by comparing the DBH, as well as the height, volume, and stem number values (as measured on the field plots) against what the model predicts these numbers should be for the exact same areas. Additionally, specially designed “control plots” could be used in a model verification process. Next, statistical estimates based on these two different plot inventory sets can be calculated and analyzed.

Model quality 72 can be verified using quality control means, which can comprise procedures to check and ensure that there are no calculation errors in the models being utilized. In general, model quality can be related to model accuracy.

Example of Probabilistic Sampling Based Predictions

The data contained in the tree match database 64 is used to predict the stem count, DBH, basal area, total height and volume estimates for all stands, which can be used to calculate the carbon dioxide volume of the forest. The estimates are based on probability theory and estimating the probabilities of several conditional events. These events (referred to herein as tree record sequences or TRS) are saved into the database. Separate DBH, height, and volume models are created for separate TRS events.

The following is an example of a TRS table corresponding to a single polygon:

TRS Description SG E(C) 1 Single Tree 1 Pr{C = 1} × Pr{SG = 1|C = 1} 2 Single Tree 2 Pr{C = 1} × [1 − Pr{SG = 1|C = 1}] 3 Larger of (1, 1) 1 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (1, 1)|C = 2} 4 Smaller of (1, 1) 1 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (1, 1)|C = 2} 5 Larger of (1, 2) 1 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (1, 2)|C = 2} 6 Smaller of (1, 2) 2 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (1, 2)|C = 2} 7 Larger of (2, 1) 2 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (2, 1)|C = 2} 8 Smaller of (2, 1) 1 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (2, 1)|C = 2} 9 Larger of (2, 2) 2 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (2, 2)|C = 2} 10 Smaller of (2, 2) 2 Pr{C = 2} × Pr{species = (2, 2)|C = 2} 11 Tertiary Conifer 1 Pr{C = 3} × E{C for P >= 3, SG = 1|C = 3} 12 Tertiary Hardwood 2 Pr{C = 3} × E{C for P >= 3, SG = 2|C = 3}

The input variables used for analysis are polygon area (A) and the polygon height calculated from the LiDAR data (H). Also, species group prediction (S) was used, which was calculated from CIR imagery. For purposes of this example, only 2 species groups are used, namely—hardwood and conifer.

For all tree record sequence events, the following variables are calculated:

-   -   E(C) or estimated count,     -   the species group (SG),     -   DBH,     -   total height of the tree, and     -   the volume of the tree.

These are output variables of the prediction equations. The following example illustrates a manner of predicting all tree sequence values for tree polygon objects, using a regression analysis:

-   -   Estimated counts for TRS events are predicted for continuous         values of A, H and the discrete values of S:         -   Prediction formula for the probability Pr(C>=1) is estimated             for continuous values of A, H and discrete values of S         -   Prediction formula for the probability Pr(C>=2|C>=1),             depending on A, H and S. The ‘|’ denotes the conditional             probability.         -   Prediction formula for the probability Pr (C>=3|C>=2),             depending on A, H and S     -   Estimated tree specie groups for TRS events depend on position         of the tree (P). The largest tree of the polygon has the P value         1, the second largest 2 and so on. The probability of the         largest tree specie group was         -   Prediction formula for Pr{SG=1 for P=1|C=1]         -   Prediction formula for Pr{SG=1 for P=2|C=2)         -   Prediction formula for Pr{SG=1 for P=2|C=2, SG=1 for P=1)         -   Prediction formula for Pr{SG=1 for P=2|C=2, SG=2 for P=1)     -   Estimated counts for tertiary trees as follows:         -   Prediction for E{C for P>=3|C=3}     -   Estimated DBH values         -   Prediction for DBH(A, H|SG=1, P=1)         -   Prediction for DBH(A, H|SG=2, P=1)         -   Prediction for DBH(A, H|SG=1, P=2)         -   Prediction for DBH(A, H|SG=2, P=2)     -   Estimated height values         -   Prediction for HT(A, H|SG=1]         -   Prediction for HT(A, H|SG=2]     -   Volume equations         -   Volume equations are not predicted. Instead, standard             equations for the forest type are used to calculate volume             from tree breast height diameter and total height values.     -   Carbon weight equations         -   Carbon Weight equations are also not predicted. Instead,             Standard equations for species are used to calculate tree             biomass, above ground carbon values, and root carbon values             using previously determined tree breast height diameter and             total height values.

Prediction Formula Example

Pr{C=1}=1/(1+exp(c ₀ +c ₁ ×A+c ₂ ×H+c ₃ ×A*H))

In this equation, the coefficients, c₀ through c₄, can be approximately 2.43, −0.0423, −0.0508 and, 0.00044, respectively.

Using the described predictions, estimated counts, diameters, heights, and volumes for all tree record sequences can be calculated. By summing up these results over all of the polygons in the stands, a more accurate stem count, basal area, and volume estimate for whole stands can be calculated.

Referring now to the diagrams in FIGS. 4 through 9, a further embodiment of a remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest 100 is illustrated, which can generally comprise processing imagery data 103 (which data is indicative of at least tree attribute information); classifying tree polygons 106 within the imagery data to derive the tree attribute information (wherein the tree attribute information can be a number of trees indicated by the imagery data); correlating field data to the imagery data 109 (which correlating can comprise defining a sampling frame within the imagery data), collecting field data from a field plot determined to correspond to the sampling frame, wherein the field data comprises actual tree attribute information); creating a correlated model 112 by matching the tree attribute information derived from the imagery data with the actual tree attribute information from the field data; probabilistic inventory creation 115/118, which can comprise extracting a regression formula using the correlated model and then applying the regression formula to all of the imagery data to produce an accurate inventory for the forest; and to then calculate a corresponding carbon dioxide volume of the forest.

Generally, the imagery data processing 103 can comprise polygon fusing and color 127, LiDAR processing 130, and CIR processing 133. The tree polygon classification 106 can generally comprise creating a training set 136, creating a sample plan 139, and creating tree crown polygon 142. The field data correlation 109 can generally comprise creating polygon match files 145, fixing the plot center 148, sample plot attributes 151. The correlated model generation 112 can basically comprise creating a species probability prediction model 154, a diameter probability prediction model 157 and the height probability prediction model 160. The probabilistic inventory creation 115/118 can generally comprise a plotting and regression formula to all tree crown data 163, providing an accuracy statement 166 and updating customers' original stand inventory data 169. This data can then be utilized to calculate the carbon dioxide volume 172 of the forest.

The determination of the carbon dioxide volume of the forest can generally involve applying known equations to the previously determined forest inventory data to determine the carbon dioxide volume per acre of the forest. The manner of determining the carbon dioxide volume can generally comprise applying known equations to convert the stem volume (in the case of above ground carbon volume) to carbon dioxide volume. Examples of physical data calculations to determine tree volume and corresponding carbon dioxide volume are:

Diameter breast height=(6.043*sgrt(A))+1.283.

Tree Height=div((A*A),((2.09000+(0.14050*A))*(2.09000+(0.14050*A))))+1.30000.

Stem Volume=00022927*pow(A,1.91505)*pow(0.99146,A)*pow(B,2.82541)*pow((B−1.3),−1.53547).

Above Ground Carbon Volume=exp(4.938+2.406*log(D))/2000000.

Root Carbon Volume=Root carbon=0.2*Above Ground Carbon Volume.

(A=tree crown area, B=predicted tree height, and D=diameter breast height)

Accordingly, the Carbon Volume Equations Permit a Very Accurate Calculation of carbon dioxide volume per acre of the forest, based upon the forest inventory data acquired by the probabilistic sampling method.

Turning now to FIG. 5, the digital imagery data processing 103 can further comprise CIR/Stand Line Processing 172 and LiDAR processing 175. The data input to the CIR/Stand Line Processing 172 can comprise CIR photography 178, stand shapes 181, and customer property boundary information 184. Alternatively, instead of, or in addition to, CIR photography, the digital images can be multispectral and/or hyperspectral. The stand shapes (and/or tree crown polygon shapes) can be derived from the imagery data input. The data input to the LiDAR processing 175 can comprise DEM (Digital Elevation model) information 187 and raw LiDAR data 190.

As illustrated, the color infrared/stand line processing 172 can comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   A reading the input data 178;     -   B splitting the CIR imagery and stand lines into smaller blocks,         which can be saved in, for example, a split block data set 193         and smaller block files 196;     -   C morphological opening and smoothing to create a smoothed block         data set 199;     -   D stand fixing/photo interpretation;     -   E shape clipping, which can be saved as clipped shape files 202;     -   F merging small blocks into one property file;     -   G quality control and inheritance; and then     -   H stratification, after which data can be saved as final         property files 205.

Creating the smoothed block data set 199 can comprise rasterizing the stand boundaries to remove all possible topology errors and features below a certain size that may be present in original stand boundaries. Afterwards, the morphological opening can be applied to the rasterized stand map, followed by vectorizing the stand shape again, generalizing and smoothing the shape and finally clipping the boundaries to the property boundaries.

As further illustrated, the LiDAR processing 175 can also comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   I calculate DTM (digital terrain model) and saving import         attributes 208;     -   J select highest pixel and subtract DEM (digital elevation         model);     -   K map digital surface value to 8 bit integer;     -   L convert and save data to gray scale, and the LiDAR metadata         and attributes 211 can be saved, as can gray scale bitmap image         files 214.

Generally, the LiDAR processing can comprise calculating the DEM; selecting highest pixel and subtracting DEM; mapping digital surface value; and converting the data to gray-scale. The laser scanning data provides a geo-referenced point cloud about earth's surface, DEM, which can include features like vegetation and buildings. The DTM can be calculated as a filtered version of DEM, and may contain only points classified as the “ground.” Both DEM and DTM values are then calculated for some grid (for example 0.5×0.5 meter grid or 1.5×1.5 foot grid). If more than one DEM point hits one grid cell, the highest one is selected. If no DEM points hit the grid, the values are interpolated using nearest points. A DSM (digital surface model) is then calculated as the difference between the DEM grid and DTM grid. After that, the continues values of DTM grid are replaced with discreet digital numbers between 0 and 255, and the results are saved as 8-bit grayscale bitmap files.

FIG. 6 illustrates further details of the tree polygon classification 106, which can comprise superimposing input data, such as at least one of CIR photography 217, or multispectral photography, stand shapes 220, tree crown polygon shapes 223 and LiDAR data 226. The process 106 can further comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   A superimpose data sets and shift polygons, and a polygon shift         dataset 229 can be saved;     -   B manual review species strata, wherein a species strata excel         report 232 and species strata data set 235 can be created;     -   C calculate average color-infrared band for individual tree         crowns;     -   D calculate second order gray level texture feature;     -   E selecting a subset of stands for classification, which can be         saved as selected stands file 238;     -   F create training set for species at strata level, which can be         saved as a training data set per strata 241;     -   G create classifier formula using discriminant analysis; and     -   H batch classify polygons for all stands and strata, after which         a classified polygon relational data store 244 can be created,         as can be a shape file 246.

Generally, classifying tree polygons 106, in an embodiment thereof, can comprise creating a polygon shift dataset; calculating an average CMR, or multispectral, band for individual tree crowns; calculating a second order gray level texture feature; selecting a subset of stands for classification; creating a training set for species at strata level; creating a classifier formula using discriminant analysis; and batch classifying polygons for all stands and strata. Polygon shift refers to tree polygons created using the LiDAR data which are moved to locations where the same features are visible on the CIR or (multi-resolution) imagery. After shifting, average band values for these polygons are created for all CIR or (multi-resolution) image bands. Also, second order (spatial co-occurrence homogeneity) texture values are calculated for individual tree polygons. Based on stratification, some stands are selected for classification training. For these training stands, interpreters can select tree polygons and mark which species group they belong to, such as by using a computer mouse. The training set data (average band and texture values for the tree polygons classified by interpreter) are then analyzed using statistical software, and classes can be separated by a statistical method, such as a discriminant analysis. The resulting classifier is then applied for all stands and strata, and all tree polygons are assigned the probabilities of belonging to an identified species group.

FIG. 7 illustrates further details of the field data correlation 109. As mentioned previously, this can generally comprise determining a sample random field plot (which corresponds to a random sampling frame defined from the remote sensing data); and collecting field plot data (such as field plot measurements and field attributes). The plot center location can be corrected if necessary, so that the field plot matches the predefined sampling frame. The field attributes can comprise tree attribute data, which can be used to create a correlated field tree match database. Similarly to as described previously, an embodiment of the process 109 can further comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   A measure plot center;     -   B capture tree attributes, for example, height, location,         segment, and others, which can be saved in a field tree         attributes data set 266;     -   C correct plot center;     -   D field data quality control; and     -   E create match data, wherein a field match relational data store         272 and polygon match files 275 can be saved.

FIG. 8 illustrates further details of the correlated model generation 112, which can generally comprise correlating input data, such as CIR data (polygon fusing and data) 278, field polygon match files 281, field plot location data 284, tree crown polygon with attributes (LiDAR data) 287, and sample plan data 290. The process 112 can further comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   A sample stand data aggregation, and storing correlated aerial         remote sensing and field info 293;     -   B correlate strata, stand, plot, plot tree, plot tree polygon         data, to create formulas and correlation coefficients, and         storing such formulas and correlation coefficients 296;     -   C species probability prediction process;     -   D diameter probability prediction process;     -   E height probability prediction process; and     -   F a validation process for each of the three prediction process         (for example, verification of accuracy and quality), which can         include storing species probability prediction model forms and         parameters, diameter probability prediction model forms and         parameters, and height probability prediction model forms and         parameters.

Moreover, as described previously, the correlated model generation 112, in an embodiment thereof, can comprise combining the data inputs listed above, which can include, for example, data output from one or more of the preceding processes, such as imagery data processing 103, tree polygon classification 106 and field data correlation 109. As also similarly described above in connection with FIG. 3, the correlated model generation 112 can comprise correlating the field plot data and the remote sensing data to create formulas, such as for tree species, height, and diameter. The correlated model generation 112 can further comprise deriving formulas and associated coefficients, via correlation of the remote sensing and field plot data, for the sample plot.

Basically, the correlated model generation 112 can comprise correlating strata, stand, plot, plot tree, and plot tree polygon data; and creating formulas to determine tree species; height; and diameter. Further processing can comprise verifying model accuracy and model quality to ensure an accurate ground/forest inventory is produced. An example of a probabilistic sampling based prediction is provided above in connection with FIG. 3.

FIG. 9 illustrates further details of an embodiment of a probabilistic inventory generation 115, in reference to the probabilistic inventory generation 115/118 shown in FIG. 4, which can generally comprise manipulating input data, such as, tree crown polygon with attributes 308, regression formulas 311, stand attributes (LiDAR, CIR) 314, and/or stand attributes (customer) 317 to generate an accurate forest inventory. The process 115 can further comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   A extract coefficients and regression formula, and storing         coefficient and formula data set 320;     -   B apply regression formula to all tree crown data, and storing         probabilistic tree attributes at stand level 323;     -   C calculate volume per acre, and store probabilistic volume per         acre data set 326;     -   D calculate stand summaries; and     -   E update customer original stand data with inventory, which can         include a final inventory, and storing accuracy statement         regression formulas 329, a customer property file 332, and/or a         relational stand inventory 335.

The probabilistic inventory generation 115, in an embodiment thereof, can generally overlap with the correlated model generation 56 described in connection with FIG. 3. In particular, the correlated model generation 56 process described previously can comprise extracting the regression formulas and coefficients, and applying these formulas and coefficients to all tree crown data to produce the forest inventory 58.

In contrast, although similarly named, the correlated model generation 112 does not apply the formulas and coefficients created in that step and apply them to all the tree crown data. Instead, the process of extracting the formulas and coefficients and then applying them to all the tree crown data to create the forest inventory is performed in the probabilistic inventory generation step 115.

FIG. 10 illustrates further details of an embodiment of a probabilistic inventory generation 118, in reference to the probabilistic inventory generation 115/118 shown in FIG. 4, specifically for determining the carbon dioxide volume of the forest, as described previously, which can generally comprise manipulating input data, such as, tree crown polygon with attributes 338, regression formulas 341, stand attributes (LiDAR, CIR) 344, and/or stand attributes (customer) 347 to generate and accurate forest inventory specifically in regard to the carbon dioxide volume per acre, or in the entirety if desired.

The process 118 can be performed instead of the process 115 in FIG. 9 if the desired output is limited to carbon dioxide volume 172. Alternatively, it is contemplated that the process 118 can be performed in addition to the process 115 in FIG. 9 to produce both the forest inventory 58 and the carbon dioxide volume 172. The process 118 can further comprise multiple steps, including one or more of the following:

-   -   A extract coefficients and regression formula, and storing         coefficient and formula data set 350;     -   B apply regression formula to all tree crown data, and storing         probabilistic tree attributes at stand level 353;     -   C calculate volume per acre, and store probabilistic volume per         acre data set 356;     -   D calculate carbon volume per acre, and store probabilistic         carbon volume per acre data set 359;     -   E calculate stand summaries; and     -   F update customer original stand data with inventory, which can         include a final inventory, and storing accuracy statement         regression formulas 362, a customer property file 365, and/or a         relational stand inventory 368.

Accordingly, the probabilistic inventory generation process 118 for carbon dioxide volume determination can be performed to provide an accurate estimate of the carbon dioxide volume per acre of the forest.

A Method of Feature Identification and Analysis

A method of feature identification will now be described in connection with FIGS. 11 through 26, which corresponds to the method of feature identification and analysis described in the aforementioned related patent application. The following description relates to a method of accurately and efficiently classifying and analyzing a digital image that depicts forests and stands of trees. The trees represent individual features or objects depicted by the digital image, that comprise tree stands, which in turn are aggregate objects or features in the digital image. Examples of other individual features which are typically captured by digital images include, but are not limited to, single or small groupings of plants, trees or small groups of homogenous trees, a house, road or building or, in the case of a digital microscopic image, a vessel, cell or small number of cells. Aggregate features are comprised of large numbers of individual features, homogeneous or heterogeneous. Examples of aggregate features include, but are not limited to, crops, marshlands, forests, and stands of trees.

The method can be most suitably performed using a computer system, e.g., a processor, storage media, input device, and video display in operable connection. Referring now to FIG. 9 illustrating one embodiment of the present invention, a digital image is taken of an area comprised of a number of individual features, e.g. trees, roads, or buildings, and aggregate features, e.g. stands of trees and forests, and relates to a method of accurately and efficiently inventorying the timber depicted by the image. The example includes segmenting forests into separate tree stands, segmenting the tree stands into separate tree crowns, and classifying the trees depicted in the digital image and segmented from the tree stands, analyzing the tree stand crown polygons to determine the crown area of the trees, and generating an accurate inventory of the tree stands and forests, comprised of the location, attribute data and valuation information produced by the preceding steps of the method. Optionally, the inventory can be stored in a designated vector file or other computer storage means.

The aggregate features of the digital image are separated into relatively homogeneous parts using a segmentation algorithm. In particular, a digital image of a portion of a forest, which typically depicts one or more species of trees of varying sizes, is segmented into stands of trees, which are preferably more homogeneous in composition than the forest itself. The stands are themselves segmented into polygons which encompass individual trees depicted in the portion of the digital image encompassed by the stand segment, such that the individual crowns of the trees are delineated by the polygons. The trees are then analyzed based on their crown area, classified by species or form model, or both, and using publicly obtainable forestry data and ratios to determine the tree's DBH and stem volume for each tree of a given species. The results of the classification and analysis are then compiled and saved in a searchable database, e.g., a vector file, such that a user of the system can determine the total stem volume for species of tree, or for trees of a range of DBH, or both, i.e., the total stem volume for a species of tree, including only trees of a certain minimal DBH, and optionally containing an accurate identification of the location and ownership of the trees, which is publicly available in tax parcel maps though difficult to obtain ordinarily. This information is particularly useful in the field of forestry, as it directly relates to the age of the forest the health of the forest, and economic value of the trees contained in the forest, particularly since the location of the economically valuable trees is also identified.

Typical digital images for use in this method are taken from aerial platforms or satellites and are either stored digitally when taken or transferred into digital format. As such, the input images contain digital numbers associated with pixels on the image. Typical sources for digital images include digital or film cameras or spectrometers carried by aircraft or satellite. At least visible color channels and infrared bandwidths can be used. Optionally, high pulse rate laser scanner data is used in combination with digital imagery. Digital input imagery is preferably of a resolution of 1 meter, more preferably 0.5 meter. Preferably, input images are ortho-rectified to a geo-coded map and color balanced.

High Level Segmentation

According to one aspect of the current invention, segmentation by a seeded region growing method is performed to obtain a segmentation vector file of polygon boundaries for homogenous areas within the digital image, e.g., tree stands. Referring now to FIG. 11, an digital input image in a computer system is selected. As an input a resolution where single features such as tree crowns cannot be detected is selected in this phase, for example, a 2-5 meter/pixel resolution. The image can be subsampled to reach the required resolution. For example, FIG. 10 illustrates a digitized image using a 2-4 meter/pixel resolution. A prefilter may be used to eliminate unwanted details. The prefilter value is the size of the discrete gaussian filter mask required to eliminate specific details and is preferably between 0 and 30. More particularly, the prefilter value is the size of the discrete Gaussian. The prefilter value of N pixels means the filtering is equivalent of applying a 3×3 filter N times, for example the 3×3 filter:

1 2 1 2 4 2 1 2 1

This describes the size of the discrete Gaussian filtering required to eliminate specific details and is preferably between 0 and 30.

If desired, a gradient image analysis is performed to identify homogenous areas within the input image. According to one embodiment of the method, gradient image analysis is performed by replacing the digital image with a new image corresponding to the greyscale gradient values of the image. A “seed point” is planted at the center of each region that has similar color/grayscale values. The similarity is measured in the gradient image, where a “postfilter” parameter specifies a gradient window size, where a window is the distance between the center and outer pixel that are selected by the algorithm to calculate the gradient. Preferable windows for segmentation of forested regions range from 1 to 30, preferably 15 depending on the resolution of the digital image and the separation of the trees imaged. The pixel with the lowest gradient is assigned the segment's seed point, and a homogenous region is grown from the seed points by adding pixels into the segments in the minimum change direction among all segments in the image. The added pixels must be next to an existing segment in any current phase. Adding pixels is continued until the entire image has been saturated according to the seeded region growing method and all pixels belong to a segment, and pixels at the borders of the segments represent the segment polygons. Boundary lines are drawn around the homogenous areas grown. Aggregate feature segmentation according to one embodiment is preferably performed on input images of high resolution, 0.4 to 1.5 m/pixel.

Accordingly, segment boundary lines, or polygons, are formed around the homogenous segments which are preferably polygonal in shape, as indicated in FIG. 12. However it is recognized that the scope of the present method is not limited by the embodiments presented herein.

Where first performed by an automatic or unsupervised algorithm, segmentation may preferably be adjusted using unsupervised and/or manual adjustment of the segmented image file. Referring once again to FIG. 11, automatic unsupervised segmentation adjustment is performed by adjusting the algorithm's filter threshold, which, upon reapplication of the segmentation algorithm, produces an the image as the merging together the neighboring segments of the previous phase, i.e., if their average color or texture feature is similar enough compared to a given threshold value. This phase can be done one or several times until the result is satisfactory. This phase is illustrated on FIG. 13 which shows the result of unsupervised segmentation adjustment performed on the stand delineation in FIG. 12. It would be recognized, however, by those skilled in the art that the source code is provided for exemplary purposes.

Manual segmentation adjustment is performed by user selection of two or more neighboring segment polygons by drawing a line touching segment polygon borders using a mouse or other computer pointing device. Alternatively, the user drawn line may be connected at the start and end points and all segments that have points common with the line or that lie within the center of the line with connected start and end points will be merged. Manual segmentation adjustment is indicated in FIGS. 14 and 15. FIG. 14 depicts a user drawn line across segment polygon boundaries. FIG. 15 depicts a resulting larger homogenous segment.

The resulting segmented image file is stored in a vector file and can be displayed as an overlay or layer on the input image using ordinary display means. The segmented boundaries are stored in vector file format, such that the resulting layer can be drawn onto the original input image and/or rectified into any map coordinate system.

According to another embodiment of the present invention, no segmentation is required and a known boundary around an area on an input image is used to further analyze features within the image.

Low Level Segmentation

According to one aspect of the current invention, low level segmentation, or individual feature segmentation is performed on a segment selected from the high level segmentation file. Referring to FIGS. 17 and 18, a stand vector file overlay is selected. According to one aspect of the present invention, individual tree crowns are segmented using seeded region growing. As illustrated in FIG. 19, within a user selected tree stand, filtering may be necessary if the image is detailed and only analysis of specific tree crowns is desired. Preferably, control parameters are used to delineate only those tree crowns associated with a certain type, species or other parameter. A prefilter may be used to eliminate unwanted details. For example, CIR, or multispectral imagery bands represented by the red/green/blue (RGB) values of the target color may be used if certain color trees are to be segmented. The prefilter value is the size of the discrete gaussian filter mask required to eliminate specific details and is preferably between 0 and 30.

Additionally, a seed threshold may be selected as the threshold value of a given local maximum corresponding to a RGB, luminance, or another color space, which is used as a seed point from which to begin growing the low level segment according to a seeded region growing algorithm. The seed threshold in 8 bit images is between 0 and 256, preferably between 30 and 100. Alternatively, the seed threshold is another color parameter. Optionally, a cut ratio may also be used to filter out features on the image that will be considered background and left outside the remaining segments or individual tree crowns. The cut ratio is a threshold greyscale value of background, using the lowest grayscale value in the used color space that should be included in the segments. Values lower than this cut ratio will be considered as background and left outside the growing segments. The cut ratio in 8 bit images is between 0 and 256, preferably between 30 and 100. Alternatively, the cut ratio is another color parameter.

According to one embodiment of the present invention, seed points are placed at local maxims on the image that are brighter than a given threshold value. The brightness can be measured in luminance value of the image or some of the channels, or in a greyscale layer created using channel transformation based on channel information such as the calculated distance from a given color value in RGB, hue, saturation, or luminance-space and using that as the new greyscale value. This method makes it possible to find trees of a certain color and exclude other trees that have different color. Beginning from the seed points, individual low level segments are grown by adding pixels into the segments in the minimum change direction in the given greyscale layer, among all segments in the image. The added pixels must be next to the existing segment in any current phase. Adding pixels is continued until the given cut ratio parameter value in the given greyscale space is achieved or the entire image has been saturated and all pixels belong to a segment. Boundary lines are drawn around each resulting segment, such as a delineated tree crown. Tree crown segments from low level segmentation are illustrated on FIG. 20. This method of tree crown delineation generates complete boundaries around each tree crown, as opposed to partial boundaries, from which accurate and valuable physical tree data may be calculated.

Low level segmentation by seeded region growing and controlled filtering is performed according to methods described in the above-referenced related copending patent application.

The resulting vector file containing low level segments, such as tree crowns, is displayed as an overlay using ordinary display means. FIG. 16 illustrates an example of the resulting crown boundaries, and crown boundaries are stored in vector file format or a raster label map, such that the resulting layer can be viewed on the original input image and/or rectified to any map coordinate system.

Classification

According to one aspect of the present invention, individual segments are classified according to species or class using supervised classification. Preferably, feature classification is performed on individual tree stands from a forestral digital image using a training procedure. Referring now to FIG. 21, a crown vector file overlay is selected. The user identifies tree crowns associated with specific tree species by manually selecting trees. Manual selection to create training sites, or user identified tree crowns, may be done by clicking on individual trees with a mouse or any other computer pointer device. The user identifies at least one tree crowns within a species, preferably 2-5 tree crowns. This training procedure is illustrated in FIGS. 21 and 22 which depicts three trees of a given species that have been manually selected. The number of training sites to be selected per species or class depends on the homogeneity of the individual delineated feature to be classified. For example, greater color homogeneity within a tree species on a particular tree crown vector file requires fewer training sites for that species. The user identifies up to 5 species within the crown vector file, preferably 1 to 5 species, more preferably 1 to 3 species. For each species identified, tree segment color, shape or texture measures are calculated to characterize the species. Preferably, the average color value of the tree crown segment or center location of the tree crown segment is used to characterize the species.

Remaining unselected tree crowns that correspond to those feature values are recognized and classified accordingly, as shown in FIGS. 21 and 23. Classification is performed pursuant to any classification method known to one of ordinary skill in the art, preferably nearest neighborhood classification.

As indicated in FIG. 21, according to another embodiment of the invention, the user manually corrects the classification as necessary by manually classifying and/or reclassifying tree crowns based on manual observation of misclassifications.

The resulting classification information is stored in a vector file. Preferably, the species information is appended to the tree crown vector file.

Data Analysis

According to another aspect of the present invention, mathematical models are used to analyze additional attributes associated with segmented and classified features in aggregate segments. Preferably, classified tree crowns within a homogenous tree stand are used for analysis. Crown correlation models are based on data obtained through field measurements based on species specific variables including, but not limited to, actual field measurement of tree crown size, DBH, volume, form class, and height. Models are stored in a database or model file, e.g. in XML format. Table 1 illustrates the Norway Spruce Model, which may be commonly used in analysis of Appalachian regions:

TABLE 1 <xml>    <modform version=“2.0” fileref=“19301_20011019_tile003.tif”>       <modgroups>          <mgroup name=“Models210801”>             <mclass name=“IHC2906” diam=“HMA11” height=“HMA21” vol=“HMA31” color=“0”/>             <mclass name=“ASH” diam=“ASH11” height=“ASH21” vol=“ASH31”/>             <mclass name=“Cherry” diam=“Cherry11” height=“Cherry21” vol=“Cherry31” color=“80FFFF”/>             <mclass name=“HMA” diam=“HMA11” height=“HMA21” vol=“HMA31” color=“4080FF”/>             <mclass name=“Poplar” diam=“ASH11” height=“Poplar21” vol=“Poplar31” color=“80FFFF”/>             <mclass name=“RedOak” diam=“Redoak11” height=“Redoak21” vol=“Redoak31” color=“FF”/>             <mclass name=“WhiteOak” diam=“Whiteoak11” height=“Whiteoak21” vol=“Whiteoak31” color=“FFFFFF”/>             <mclass name=“RMA” diam=“RMA11” height=“RMA21” vol=“RMA31” color=“800080”/>             <mclass diam=“IHC2906” height=“IHCOoakHght” vol=“IHCHeight” name=“” color=“0”/>          </mgroup>       </modgroups>       <models>          <diameter>             <model id=“1” name=“ASH11” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“5.847”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.735”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Cherry11” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“3.217”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.765”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“HMA11” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“3.192”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.69”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“RMA11” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“3.192”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.69”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Poplar11” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“1.068”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.86”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Redoak11” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“2.034”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.86”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Whiteoak11” formula=“Square Root- X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“3.523”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.79”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“IHC2906” formula=“Naeslund” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“1.651”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.2006”/>                <param id=“3” val=“0.0000”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“IHCoak” formula=“Square Root-X” inpunit1=“ft2” outunit=“inch”>                <param id=“1” val=“21.9397”/>                <param id=“2” val=“3.1726”/>                <param id=“3” val=“0.00000”/>             </model>          </diameter>          <height>             <model id=“1” name=“ASH21” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“43.182”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.882”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Cherry21” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“27.021”/>                <param id=“2” val=“2.274”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“HMA21” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“33.074”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.946”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“RMA21” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“33.074”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.946”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Poplar21” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“43.41”/>                <param id=“2” val=“2.3”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Redoak21” formula=“Logarithmic-X” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“1.533”/>                <param id=“2” val=“22.236”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“Whiteoak21” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“36.718”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.5”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“IHC2906” formula=“Linear” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“28.2382”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.5075”/>                <param id=“3” val=“0.0000”/>             </model>             <model id=“1” name=“IHCOoakHght” formula=“Naeslund” inpunit1=“inch” outunit=“ft” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“2.7434”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.1947”/>                <param id=“3” val=“0.0000”/>             </model>          </height>          <volume>             <model id=“2” name=“ASH31” formula=“Square Root-Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−16.058”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.5”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“Cherry31” formula=“Square Root-Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−13.161”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.427”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“HMA31” formula=“Square Root-Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−13.598”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.49”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“RMA31” formula=“Square Root-Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−13.598”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.49”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“Poplar31” formula=“Square Root-Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−16.037”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.575”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“Redoak31” formula=“Square Root-Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−13.3”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.449”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“Whiteoak31” formula=“Square Root- Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−13.008”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.42”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“undefined” formula=“Square Root- Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−13.3”/>                <param id=“2” val=“1.38”/>             </model>             <model id=“2” name=“IHCHeight” formula=“Square Root- Y” inpunit1=“inch” inpunit2=“ft” outunit=“bf” xmin1=“3”>                <param id=“1” val=“−0.8110”/>                <param id=“2” val=“0.0525”/>                <param id=“3” val=“0.0000”/>             </model>          </volume>       </models>       <formulas>          <formula id=“1” name=“Naeslund”>             <add>                <div>                   <mul>                      <var inx=“1”/>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </mul>                   <mul>                      <add>                         <coeff inx=“1”/>                         <mul>                            <coeff inx=“2”/>                            <var inx=“1”/>                         </mul>                      </add>                      <add>                         <coeff inx=“1”/>                         <mul>                            <coeff inx=“2”/>                            <var inx=“1”/>                         </mul>                      </add>                   </mul>                </div>                <coeff inx=“3”/>             </add>          </formula>          <formula id=“2” name=“sqrtLinear”>             <add>                <mul>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <sqrt>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </sqrt>                </mul>                <coeff inx=“2”/>             </add>          </formula>          <formula id=“2” name=“La$$enaho2”>             <mul>                <coeff inx=“1”/>                <pow>                   <var inx=“1”/>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                </pow>                <pow>                   <coeff inx=“3”/>                   <var inx=“1”/>                </pow>                <pow>                   <var inx=“2”/>                   <coeff inx=“4”/>                </pow>                <pow>                   <add>                      <var inx=“2”/>                      <coeff inx=“6”/>                   </add>                   <coeff inx=“5”/>                </pow>             </mul>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Linear”>             <add>                <coeff inx=“1”/>                <mul>                   <var inx=“1”/>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                </mul>             </add>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Multiplicative”>             <mul>                <coeff inx=“1”/>                <pow>                   <var inx=“1”/>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                </pow>             </mul>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Reciprocal-Y”>             <inv>                <add>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <mul>                      <var inx=“1”/>                      <coeff inx=“2”/>                   </mul>                </add>             </inv>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Exponential”>             <exp>                <add>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <mul>                      <var inx=“1”/>                      <coeff inx=“2”/>                   </mul>                </add>             </exp>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Reciprocal-X”>             <add>                <coeff inx=“1”/>                <div>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                   <var inx=“1”/>                </div>             </add>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Logarithmic-X”>             <add>                <coeff inx=“1”/>                <mul>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                   <log>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </log>                </mul>             </add>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Square Root-X”>             <add>                <coeff inx=“1”/>                <mul>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                   <sqrt>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </sqrt>                </mul>             </add>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Square Root-Y”>             <pow2>                <add>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <mul>                      <coeff inx=“2”/>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </mul>                </add>             </pow2>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“2-Reciprocal”>             <inv>                <add>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <div>                      <coeff inx=“2”/>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </div>                </add>             </inv>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“S-Curve”>             <exp>                <add>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <div>                      <coeff inx=“2”/>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </div>                </add>             </exp>          </formula>          <formula id=“1” name=“Polynomical”>             <add>                <coeff inx=“3”/>                <mul>                   <coeff inx=“1”/>                   <var inx=“1”/>                </mul>                <mul>                   <coeff inx=“2”/>                   <pow2>                      <var inx=“1”/>                   </pow2>                </mul>             </add>          </formula>       </formulas>    </modform>

Any model that is commonly known in the art may be used to generate species specific data based on tree crown area. Examples of models commonly known in the art include Naeslund and Laasasenaho2.

Any variable may be included in the model, including but not limited to species, DBH, form class, tree quality or value. Models may be updated and altered depending on the species and region, and new models incorporated at any time into the model database.

Referring now to FIG. 24, according to one embodiment of the present method, the user selects a crown vector file for analysis, calculates the crown size for each tree, and selects an appropriate data model that most closely represents the species depicted in the crown vector file and geographic location of the original input image. Using the model, each tree's DBH is calculated based on crown size. Additional aggregate tree stand and individual tree data is thereafter calculated, such as height and volume based on DBH, total breast height diameter distribution of trees, tree height distribution, tree stem number, tree stem number per hectare, total tree stem volume, and histogram distribution of trees by species, such histogram which can be adjusted by putting upper and lower limits on tree stem size. The reported data is displayed on ordinary display means, as illustrated in FIG. 25. Examples of physical data calculations are:

Diameter breast height=(6.043*sgrt(A))+1.283;

Tree Height=div((A*A),((2.09000+(0.14050*A))*(2.09000+(0.14050*A))))+1.30000; and

Stem Volume=000022927*pow(A,1.91505)*pow(0.99146,A)*pow(B,2.82541)*pow((B−0.3),−1.53547).

In the equation, A=tree crown area.

According to another embodiment of the present method, batch modeling of delineated and classified features is performed using pre-selected models.

As indicated in FIG. 24, the resulting data is stored in vector file format. Preferably, the aggregate stand data is stored on the stand attribute table that is associated with the stand vector file generated according to the stand segmentation aspect of the current. Additionally, the tree data may be stored on the attribute table in the crown vector file.

According to one embodiment of the present method, statistical information is also generated based on the modeling results, which includes, but is not limited to valuation of timber, estimation of property values based on public tax and terrain slope information, over or under-valuation of property by comparing market value to timber valuation, and estimation of vegetation growth rates and agricultural production. For example, the value of timber in a particular tree stand is calculated using the tree stem volume calculated from crown area, and public market value information based on species. Total volume of species used for this determination can be limited depending on the size of the tree as specified by the user. The market value may be obtained from public information or may be user input.

Another example of valuation information that can be generated from a digital image is orchard output. For example, where crown areas are captured from a digital image of a grove of orange trees, an estimate of the oranges produced by the individual trees can be calculated, e.g., by applying an empirically based statistical classification model where crown areas of area A1 produce 01 oranges, A2 produce 02 oranges, where A(x) is a range of areas, and O(x) is average orange production for areas A(x).

Statistical data is stored in the corresponding crown and/or stand vector file as indicated in FIG. 15, and can be displayed by ordinary display means.

It is recognized that the scope of the present method includes application of the current method to other empirical models that are based on species data, such as fruit and juice production from fruit baring trees, carbon production, etc and that the present method is not limited to any specific embodiment presented herein.

Example 1

A 2 foot digital ortho-rectified, color-balanced image in TIFF format was taken of a 12 square mile forested area in Nicholas County, W. Va. The image was taken in RGB true color, and was taken in the fall when leaves are in senescence. Stand segmentation was performed using seeded region growing. Tree crowns were captured using segmentation, and filtering parameters used to eliminate undesirable details were a prefilter value of 4, a seed threshold of 90, and a cut ratio of 90. Species were classified according to supervised classification based on the teaching method. Three trees were selected per species. Three species were selected and identified using nearest neighborhood classification: poplar, red maple and red oak.

For data analysis, a model was selected for each of the three species based on data from 200 field measurements of different sized trees in Pennsylvania. The resulting data was displayed and is illustrated in FIG. 25.

Example 2

A stand area of 24 acres was selected south of Dugway Rd, in Madison County, N.Y., Tax Map Number 148-1-7. Low level segmentation was performed to delineate tree crowns, and species classification and tree crown data analysis were performed to determine tree species and total tree stem volume in board-feet. A total of 93,402 board-feet was calculated based on only trees of DBH greater than 12 inches. Trees with DBH greater than 25 inches were not used in the data analysis.

Species classification resulted in 85% Hard Maple, 13% undefined, and 2% Chemy. The Norway Spruce Model was selected based on the species present in the image. The following table illustrates a breakdown of tree stem volume based on the total number of trees per DBH:

DBH (in.) Tree Count Total Volume/DBH (Bf) <12   0 0 12 154 2952 13 167 5504 14-15 293 18374 16-17 197 23001 18-19 107 19339 20-21 63 16496 22-23 18 5860 24-25 5 1876

Example 3

A stand area of 18 acres was selected in Madison County, N.Y., East of Cazenoia, Moraine Road, Tax Map Number 96-2-1. Low level segmentation was performed to delineate tree crowns, and species classification and tree crown data analysis were performed to determine tree species and total tree stem volume in board-feet. A total of 25,629 board-feet was calculated based on only trees of DBH greater than 14 inches.

Species classification resulted in 45% Hard Maple, 15% Cherry, 4% Red Maple, and 36% undefined. The Norway Spruce Model was selected based on the species present in the image. The following table illustrates a breakdown of tree stem volume based on the total number of trees per DBH:

DBH (in.) Tree Count Total Volume/DBH (B!) 14-15 64 9832  6-17 87 10027 18-19 22 4039 20-21 5 1374 22-23 1 357 24-25 0 0 26-27 0 0 28-29 0 0 30-31 0 0 32-33 0 0 34+ 0 0

Timber value was then calculated using the total tree stem volume per species in Doyle and stump prices per 1000 Doyle. The following table illustrates the valuation data generated using the present method:

Volume Stump Price (per Species (Doyle) 1000 Doyle) Timber Value Hard Maple 11,533 $629.00 $7,254.26 Cherry 3,844 $2,234.00 $8,587.50 Red Maple 1,025 $309.00 $316.73 Other 9,226 $131.00 $1,208.61 TOTAL 25,628 $3303.00 $17,367.08

The foregoing illustrations of embodiments of the methods described herein are offered for the purposes of illustration and not limitation. It will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that the embodiments described herein may be modified or revised in various ways without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure.

What has been described above comprises exemplary embodiments of a remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method. It is, of course, not possible to describe every conceivable combination of components or methodologies for purposes of describing this method, but one of ordinary skill in the art may recognize that many further combinations and permutations are possible in light of the overall teaching of this disclosure. Accordingly, the remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based forest inventory method described herein is intended to be illustrative only, and should be considered to embrace any and all alterations, modifications and/or variations that fall within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. Furthermore, to the extent that the term “includes” may be used in either the detailed description or elsewhere, this term is intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprising” as that term is interpreted as a transitional word in a claim. 

1. A remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest, the method comprising: a. processing remote sensing data indicative of tree attribute information for said forest, said remote sensing data comprising at least one of LiDAR data and digital images; b. defining a sampling frame within said remote sensing data; c. determining a field plot corresponding to said sampling frame; and collecting field plot data therefrom, said field plot data comprising actual tree attribute information; d. generating a correlated model by combining said field plot data with said remote sensing data corresponding to said sample frame; e. applying said correlated model to all said remote sensing data to produce a probabilistic forest inventory; and f. determining a probabilistic carbon dioxide volume of the forest utilizing said probabilistic forest inventory.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said correlated model comprises at least one formula for determining at least one of tree species, tree height, tree diameter, and carbon dioxide volume.
 3. A remote sensing and probabilistic sampling based method for determining the carbon dioxide volume of a forest, the method comprising: a. processing imagery data, said imagery data indicative of tree attribute information for said forest; b. classifying tree polygons within said imagery data to derive said tree attribute information; c. correlating field data, said field data comprising at least one of actual tree attribute information and plot center location; d. generating a correlated model utilizing said tree attribute information derived from said imagery data and said actual tree attribute information; e. generating a probabilistic forest inventory by applying said correlated model to all said imagery data; and f. determining a probabilistic carbon dioxide volume of the forest utilizing said using said probabilistic forest inventory.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein generating said correlated model further comprises deriving at least one formula for determining at least one of tree species, tree height, tree diameter, and carbon dioxide volume.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein generating said probabilistic inventory further comprises: a. applying said species probability prediction model, diameter probability prediction model, and height probability prediction model to all said imagery data; b. calculating at least a volume per acre; and c. calculating a carbon dioxide volume per acre. 